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The First World War

By Stefan Sasse

War enthusiasts dt soldiers on the way to the front, 1914

in August 1914 ended the world as they knew the contemporaries. An era of close economic and cultural interdependence of nation-states with each other, by economic historians often referred to as the "first globalization" was made at a stroke destroyed. The conflict ended and the "long 19th century" and rang the short, bloody 20 a century. For four years, Europe has become a center of the killing and murder, as it had seen the world yet so far. Million men in rapidly mobilized armies used the whole of their time available technical potential to kill thousands each other. While in the muddy trenches of the Western Front a whole, "lost" generation of the war the place was, had put in earlier generations of work and culture and was the war a static, technical and dehumanized component of his image is still influential , the German soldiers met in the East in a seemingly endless and deserted room and looked around him break two centuries-old empires in pieces. Covenants of both fighters in southeast Europe experienced the collapse of the old Ottoman Empire and the painful birth of new, immediately warring nation-states. Almost every country in the world was involved in this conflict, the European colonial powers fought - they had the world in the decades before divided among them, and they moved now into their own bloody demise

In the following, this war are described from several view points out: the. for the reminder of the Western world as the German constituent war on the Western Front, with its trenches and artillery bombardments, the war on the Eastern Front, where the tsarist regime aggregate its own destruction, the South and South-Eastern Front, where the European periphery to war for their own conflicts, used the colonial war in the world and the aftermath of the war. Special emphasis will be placed on the importance of these events for the course of the 20th Century will be added.

mobilization (in Melbourne, Australia)

When the war in late July 1914 with the mobilization mechanisms and alliance could not be stopped, took in all European countries the military power in the hands of the civilian governments. They were attacked by an all-encompassing sense of powerlessness, had tried to the last, but the war still reside, which unfolded with clockwork precision in front of them. They paid the price for it, put the power in the hands of the military and not the primacy of politics to have secured. The British Foreign Secretary Edward Grey declared prophetically that the lights went out across Europe and that they in their lifetime will probably not see again tackle. Monarch as Wilhelm II of Germany and Nicholas II of Russia suffered nervous breakdowns, and broke in France as in England almost the Government. The military, however, all sides were beyond their dashing statements offer no real alternatives for a win: their plans provided for one and all the fast Mobilization, the rapid rise and the imminent final battle before, and this with no side so bold as to the Germans. existed for the case that the complicated plans failed and neither plans how to make the changes in military technology with machine guns and more powerful artillery in the strategic and tactical concepts involved had.

The war thus began with strategic debacles for all sides . The French Plan XVII, which provided for an invasion of the main force of Alsace-Lorraine, through to southern Germany, remained in the fire of German artillery and machine guns put blood, although the French out have built to be able to use their massive human superiority quickly in this section to break through. Within less than three weeks, nearly 300,000 French soldiers died - a death toll that broke the country in September 1914 to the brink of ruin. The German advance, a breakneck modified version of the already audacious Schlieffen under, reached at the same time, the Ile de France. Only at the Marne, the Germans suffered a several days' of all known death toll in excess of a tactical battlefield defeat. Involved were British troops, which was due to the advance of the German army through Belgium in the war - an irresponsible creation of the casus belli by the German High Command, which had neglected the political complications of his actions in favor of military convenience perfectly. Exhausted, the armies dug in the fall of 1914, where they stood and waited for the start of 1915. The illusion of being able to end the war quickly, you had to give up already.

Russian soldiers a

In the east, however, the errors of the German military leadership was still much more evident. She had the time needed by Russia to mobilize its forces would completely misunderstood. Hastily, therefore, had to the already over-stressed Marne front be thinned further in order to counter the unexpectedly advancing Russian armies in East Prussia something. Barely 30,000 men defended the province against over 300,000 advancing Russians. Just incredible mistakes of the Russian commanders and the disastrous moral and equipment of the Russian troops was due to the fact that were destroyed in the battle of the Masurian Lakes (which should go down as a battle of Tannenberg in German myth) the invading Russian armies . Even this unexpected victory, however, was the heavy losses of territory also poorly organized, failed to prevent armed and moral well-established imperial army that Germany compensate with massive use. In boastful arrogance, the Austrians also had the effort to defeat Serbia's completely underestimated, which could stop the advance of the troops of the Dual Monarchy. Only in Africa and the Pacific at least the operations of the Allies proceeded as planned, and took over, often after only token resistance, the German colonies (with the famous exception Lettow-Vorbeck, who led a four-year guerrilla war in East Africa with terrible loss of life among the indigenous population) .

The 1914 war had to The almost total failure of military leadership and all predictions about the nature and course of the war revealed. The illusions of the "fresh, happy war" was gone. Still, the military was obsessed with the idea to make a breakthrough and then turned over to the usual movement of them war. Due to the developments on the Russian front the German side in the West was mainly passive, while the Entente hoped to exploit these developments for the just-awaited breakthrough. The problems of the new trench warfare were found in the Allied attacks while being extremely fast: a British-Canadian offensive, after violent Artillery preparation in March 1915 at Neuve Chapelle achieve rapid territorial gains, apply, not because by not complying with supplies and reinforcements by the previously bombed area, while the Germans brought their own supplies quickly approaching and so repulsed the attack. Long this problem will remain unsolvable and prevent a breakthrough. The German attempt to achieve a breakthrough with gas at Ypres was indeed first, we could not also time to move into the resulting gap and make the breakthrough. In the West the year passed in 1915 so with bloody experiment with the new circumstances.

two Russian soldiers began

the east in May 1915, the great German-Austrian Galicia offensive. Federated High Command, the attackers pushed the Russians back quickly and forced the Russians to a strategic retreat by several hundred kilometers, virtually all of Russian Poland put in the hands of the Central Powers. Again, the problem of the Russian army was mainly the supply, it lacked, especially ammunition and artillery. Only in the late fall stabilized the Russians themselves and kept on the advance of the Central Powers, the front stretched from the Baltic States on the future later Ukraine and Belarus, down to the northeast boundary of the dual monarchy.

The British, however, had designed a new strategy, which provided for an elimination of the weakest middle power, the Ottoman Empire. By landing on the peninsula Galilpoli in April 1915 should be a bridgehead established and the vital Straits of the Dardanelles are being given subversive activities spurred the same time the Arabs to revolt against the Turks (in this case was the famous "Lawrence of Arabia" active). The invasion of Gallipoli was a colossal failure, in which thousands of British and Australian troops under fire from Turkish guns mounted fell. The battle continued along with the evacuation of Allied troops by January 1916. At the same time the British had in the course of 1915 recognize that their Seekriegsstrategie was viable. Their blockade of Germany concluded that although (international law) on most imports, but it could weaken significantly at any time (although the ineradicable legend holds hundreds of thousands of starvation deaths in Germany, which is not defined). The German fleet felt too weak to disengage from the blockade, and remained in the harbor and only the U-boats took the surprisingly successful (international law) blockade of the British Isles, with Germany, however, by sinking neutral ships, the world public, especially the U.S., antagonizing began.

supplies in the Alpine war

In April 1915 began but also from other hardships for the Central Powers to stir: Italy, allied initially with Germany and Austria-Hungary , said this month its treaty obligations null and void and declared Austria-Hungary (not Germany) in May 1915 the war that it ushered in a series of surprise attacks along the border and the Tyrolean Isonzo River. This Attacks brought not even close to the desired success, and soon crossed the trenches and the Italian front - sometimes several thousand feet in the Alps.

drew To date, the war is now one and a half years, without there being a successful side, also getting to only partially in the vicinity of large operational successes. Although the circle of the belligerent powers had expanded continuously (as in 1915 were Italy and Bulgaria joined the two alliances), no improvement of the strategic situation can be achieved. Territorial gains in the east extended only to the conservative front, while to the west and south, even territorial gains of more than a few hundred meters were illusory soon because they were simply not logistically to accomplish - the defenses and excessive Artilleriebeschüsse not have allowed the attacker approached to bring supplies and reinforcements in the required amount, while the defenders could afford easily. The man came in the face of these developments, more and more into the background; ascertain factors of war, the logistics and technology. In the staffs of the armies of the great planners like Moltke or French fell by the wayside and were replaced by planners, that type of military men, for men only were relevant as factors, and its part in the dehumanization the war industry. The consequences were felt in 1916.

dt traumatized soldier on the Western Front in 1916

The supreme commander of the German Army, Erich von Falkenhayn, decided in view of the impossibility of a breakthrough, "bleed" the French army simple. To this end, a good defensible point to be taken by France for reasons of national pride and not because of its strategic importance would be lost to - Verdun. This position should be sustained, with thanks to the division before the defender grave in the new war, the French, German losses would exceed by far. The offensive began in February 1916 and was first successfully Douaumont was captured by the French replaced the conservative General Pétain by the aggressive Neville, who started to plan numerous unsuccessful but bloody offensives. At the same time the Russians in the east also suffered heavy losses. The British army leadership decided therefore a relief offensive along the Somme, to draw German reinforcements from Verdun. After massive artillery bombardments to attack the British any alleged destroyed German defense line, but the German positions had survived the bombardment relatively well. The consequences of error were terrible: the British Army suffered the highest losses in a single day of their entire military history, 57,000 man than 600,000 Allied losses were probably less than 450,000 compared to German, although the number is disputed. In Verdun, however, was comparable conditions of more and more, as the French used a new tactic ("barrage") to take positions and the Germans are now held fast even from misunderstood pride in their positions for better or worse. In August 1916, Falkenhayn was consequently replaced. Take their place Hindenburg and Ludendorff, the abbliesen the Battle of Verdun and the German Army mounted on a position survive the "Hindenburg Line", withdrew to the 1917 defensive and instead be sought in the south, east and southeast of the decision.

saw in naval warfare the year 1916, the only truly great naval battle of World War II : the Battle of Skagerrag (English: Battle of Jutland). The German fleet for years and expensive hochgepäppelt bone of contention between England and Germany before the war, had so far been very unsuccessful. She wanted to offset the numerical inferiority to England, attracting some of the British fleet into the trap and separated in order to again destroy operational capabilities to obtain and the German merchant shipping to make room. The battle was a draw, however, the British commander Jellicoe took the fleet on the evening of slaughter day 31st May return, which did indeed receive the German fleet and was not destroyed, the German strategy but also no chance of success could have more: the British maintained control over the North Sea, and the High Seas Fleet was a further two years idle in the German ports.

Turkish fortifications on the Black Sea

At the Ottoman front in 1916 much calmer than by the bloody Gallipoli campaign marked the 1915th The Ottomans fought with the Arab uprising and against the Russian armed forces had, but mostly calm before the British. Austria-Hungary was able finally to defeat Serbia, which escaped to Albania and defeated associations band whose crew valuable troops. Romania entered the war and attacked the eastern flank of the dual monarchy in hopes of quick gains, but was quickly defeated after initial success, because Russia could not send relief. Italy and Austria attacked at her front in a series of offensives on the Isonzo especially along which the two armies to the brink of total exhaustion argued that without more may gain as a short tactical successes - the end of September 1916 the ninth major Isonzo battle was led

built to the east on both sides during the first half of 1916 their troops.. . In June, the Russians then began their great offensive ("Brusilov offensive) against Austria-Hungary's wings in the area of present-day Ukraine, tens of thousands of soldiers, the front of the double monarchy broke almost completely, and several hundred thousand prisoners were taken, and taken between 50 and 70km road . The Austria-Hungarian army was destroyed during the offensive, almost completely, and suffered the greatest Defeat of their recent history. The campaign also marks the biggest success of both the Russian and the Allied war effort as a whole and could only be stopped by massive Consult German reinforcements.

ships of the German High Seas Fleet

reached in 1916 so in the bloody battles of World War II at its peak. In the popular memory of the First World War are particularly the battles of Verdun (France and Germany) and the Somme (United Kingdom) by the collective memory and contribute symbol of the cruelty and death rates of the gigantic war grave. The Battle of Jutland proved once again that the German High Seas Fleet of the English equivalent and was not a colossal bad investment was - either too large or too small. Russia had its logistical difficulties to get a grip and was able to break through the over-extended lines of the Central Powers with a spectacular success, however, claimed his own forces, ultimately, as the year 1917 should show soon. A strategy that could end the war had been of both sides continue - the great battles of Verdun and the Somme, but had proven to be an urgent relocation of companies (120 men) to small, tactical units (shock troops) of about 10 men was needed, a development which was completed in the course of 1917. The battles of Verdun and the Somme were also the first time shows how important was the air superiority and related air reconnaissance for operations: the German advance on Verdun had been performed with complete air superiority, and the British operations of the Somme was preceded by a massive Allied air offensive that the days of the individual struggle of the "Knights of the air" if it had ever existed, finally finished: now dominated tactical squadrons.

The German retreat on the Hindenburg line had the French offensive plans for 1917 will be redundant, which had targeted a salient. Nevertheless, Planet of the French Commander Neville, who had been in Verdun as many bloody useless offensives have carried out, a huge campaign to win the war with a decisive blow, 1.2 million men should be involved. The skeptical soldiers are reassured with the promise to stop attacks if no breakthrough can be achieved. The offensive began in April and ate quickly established, despite weeks of preparation and use of artillery shells. After a week, about 100,000 French soldiers were dead, without Successes could be achieved. Contrary to his promise Neville ordered the continuation of the offensive in May. In this situation, began the first French soldiers, veterans of Verdun also mutiny. Spread rapidly from the mutiny to 54 divisions and 20,000 men were soon deserted. The Frenchman then broke from Neville by Pétain, (became ringleaders put on trial, the masses got better rations and the next few months, the army acted defensively) by a combination of carrots and sticks the morale restored. At the same time started further north along the Belgian front, the British troops a new offensive at Ypres. Despite initial success, thanks to massive Blasts prepared for months tunnel ate also found this incredible losses under attack from both sides. In November, the British took another try with their new weapons: tanks. About 300 tanks at Cambrai achieved a breakthrough in incredibly low losses, the breakthrough could not be backed by the British. The salient was formed by the Germans penetrated the side, especially with their new unit, the "shock troops". These were small groups of infantry that attacked positions in the no man's land of the trenches, ditches, attacked and similar hair-raising campaigns led mainly by in-house.

Italian troops on the Isonzo

tried in the south and Italy in the early summer, to finally enforce the decision. In the tenth Isonzo battle, they could indeed win tactical successes against the Austrians how to ensure as many times in the First World War but not the supply, so that the results were meaningless. The Austrians were now spans from the southern front to the utmost and urgent need of help that the Germans could send them thanks to a defensive success on the Eastern Front. In addition to the fresh troops, they brought the new tactics of shock troops, with which they dealt in the eleventh Isonzo battle, the Italian troops and attack from behind. The result was devastating, and completely broke the Italian line on the first day alone, the Italian troops moved back almost 20km, and would only - can build a stable line in Venice - again because of supply problems of the attackers. Also in the Italian army mutinies there was then. In the meantime, the Ottoman Empire, however, had suffered heavy defeats in the Middle East; Bagdgad and Jerusalem were occupied by the British and lost control of the territory left. Romania considered himself barely against the attacks of the Central Powers, band but valuable troops. In Serbia Meanwhile, the Austrians had to fight with a huge uprising, the band also troops. The same applies to the Macedonian front formed in the meantime - of vital importance, the events in the Balkans were not, but it deflected off the Central Powers.

The folgenschweste decision of the war, but precipitated the German government in the spring of 1917, when she gave up the resistance to the required by the military unrestricted U-boat war, a new and final abandonment of the primacy of politics over the military. This was confident that it will starve with a completely unrestricted U-boat war England in a few months and the war were to decide that before the U.S. would ever be able to send troops - because this move would certainly bring America to the Entente in the war. Actually played by the United States, which declared in April in response to war in 1917 still does not matter. Their land army was smaller than that of Portugal and hardly suitable for use, and its fleet played due to lack of military experience as well irrelevant. The promised success of the submarines on the other hand presented a not, if only because the British were the introduction of the convoy system a quick and effective counter-response.

Lenin 1917

The greatest success came in 1917 for the Germans on the Eastern Front. The efficiency of Russian industry, which had led to the success of the offensive Brusilov 1916, congested, the Russian economy, its major cities could not provide them with food. Riots were the result, in February thanked the Czar in favor of a conservative government, which promised a land reform after the war and thought, defensively endure until the war was won by the Western Allies. The Germans met because of a momentous decision: they have led the professional revolutionary Lenin from Swiss exile own Territory to Russia, where he take over the government or destabilize it, at least, and so should help the Germans, who counted probably not serious about its success. The same was true of the conservative government, which started in summer last Russian offensive, which went down miserably. Now it happened in the Russian army to mutiny, and riot, but unlike the French and Italian riots could not be contained. In the fall of the Russian army was in complete resolution, and in November of Lenin to power in a coup - the Russian civil war began.

was 1917 the year in which the Germans had the victory well in the most tangible proximity. The offensive capability of the Allies was to virtually all fronts (except the non-critical theater of war in the Middle East) is exhausted, morale is low. In Italy, a breakthrough was achieved, Russia collapsed and it could only be a matter of time until victory was achieved if it was possible to keep the Americans from a serious intervention. This is exactly what managed the U-boats but not full-bodied despite previous promises. Well into the spring of 1918, American troops would enter play any role that Germany would not have operational advantages. From this point, however, the balance began to tilt inevitably against the Reich. This imbalance was caused deliberately, a pipe dream of the military leadership: the success of the U-boat strategy was highly questionable from the start. The slope of the German military, to stake everything on one card, laid the crucial groundwork for the demise of the empire. allowed

German officers in Riga, postcard from 1918

The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Germany is to deduct 33 divisions from the east. This number was considerably smaller than the total of the troops in the east, which were extremely busy trying to secure the massive loot conceded the contract it - a prey, the greedy hands of the military leadership that this followed the establishment of an independent state within the state for military-feudal dreams, rapidly ran through his fingers. The new Bolshevik government had to sign the peace treaty brutal long delayed, so that the Germans once again made a renewed offensive of the railway lines and captured thousands of square kilometers of land was that it was now vacant. Again, the lack of a head, would have the military and political necessities can join. No one was willing to make concessions in the East to prized more troops. To make the intransigent attitude of the Germans, as much loot as possible, cost they win in the West. The year 1918 saw

the collapse of most German allies. The Ottoman Empire could indeed, also because of the peace treaty with Russia, barely keep the British troops marched However, from the south. After the Germans and Austrians were forced in late summer of its troops from the Balkans to be deducted, Bulgaria was defeated in September. The most decisive defeat suffered by the Austrians in the south, in Vittorio Veneto October 1918 in Italy, a battle whose outcome only with the Brusilov offensive in 1916 was similar: the Italians broke the Austrian front, which had stabilized any more. The army of the Dual Monarchy effectively ceased to exist. Over 300,000 troops surrendered, and many Teilethnien then declared their independence from Vienna. Germany was not able to send any more supplies. From October, it stood alone.

shock troops in attack, 1918

These events, however, the decision went ahead in the West. With the withdrawal of Russian divisions were the Germans in the spring of 1918, their battle-experienced troops withdraw from the front, making it into shock troops. The first time in the war, she now had a numerical superiority to the Allies, not yet on American forces possessed that would probably arrive during the summer. It was therefore necessary to win in the spring. Again informed the High Command all in one basket. If the Michael offensive (May - July) to be successful, they would win the war after all. The German army had several advantages in addition to numerical superiority. Your arms and training was better, they had more reserves and the British and French opponents were exhausted and still operated under separate high command, which made it difficult to coordinate operations. The Michael offensive reached enormous territorial gains, about 65 km, and reached almost the strategic goal to share the French and British armed forces. The huge successes were, however was to show how soon meaningless: that was before by the withdrawal to the Hindenburg line straightened front by numerous bulges significantly extended and vulnerable now, and the Allies had not collapsed, but had to stop the German advance in the end. The German army was exhausted and on the edge of their forces. In July, the Allies were now under unified force high command and with several hundred thousand American reinforcements outstanding successful counter-attacks, which made the German territorial gains in tatters and with massive use of Amiens Amount of tanks and planes a decisive success. Although it was the German army re-establish a defensive line that the war was lost at this time. End of 1918, 2.1 million Americans would be deployed each month were added 300,000 new. German reinforcements were no longer there. The morale of the army collapsed, the number of captured German soldiers exploded a few hundred per month to tens of thousands each summer month. The military leaders feared a breakup and a revolution in Germany similar to that in Russia and urged the government to cease fire.

The First World War ended with the armistice on 11/11/1918. The German troops marched back home, "undefeated in the field," as it was soon to quell the domestic revolution (the revolution see here). Over ten million people had died, large parts of northern France had been turned into a desert. The European powers were drained and devastated. But the war must be placed? What impact did he have?

British Sopwith F-1 "Camel"

had Militarily, the war technology developed significantly. The importance of aircraft, artillery, tanks and submarines was bright Military has become clear who wanted to develop new tactics (on the German side about Guderian, Rommel and Dönitz). In particular, the Allies, but pulled the wrong conclusions from the war, as shown in the Second World War would be painful, as the defense systems of the French (Maginot Line) quick German tanks was not an obstacle. The flight technique must clearly won by the war developments. These included not only improvements in the 1914 experimental aircraft, but also bomb attacks on enemy cities from which you are promised big terrorist action.

emerged politically in Europe a number of new nation states in the field of broken empires Russia, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Empire. Stable, most of them do not, objects of envy and hatred of their former neighbors and powerful soon torn by internal strife and ethnic conflicts, which played the self-determination of peoples, the political legitimacy in the hand. It was the Allies not to develop a viable post-war order: the Treaty of Versailles could not fulfill this role. Germany was weakened and injured, but was not weakened enough to present no danger or in a collective system involved, it could keep in courses. Instead, they made the potentially most powerful economic and military power in Europe for pariah states, which hardly had any other choice than to strive for revision - a great burden from the start of the first German republic. The withdrawal of U.S. isolationism and the turmoil of the Russian Revolution rested the enforcement of the peace treaty from the outset solely to England and France, which had to go against all odds - an unnatural and hardly-held position, especially as England from to distance the contract began.

bills as wallpaper, 1923

Economically, the war had devastating consequences. Not only was the previous Era of economic prosperity of the interlacing economies have been completed at a stroke. The European nations had also accumulated massive debts, partly in the U.S. (France and Great Britain), sometimes at its own people. The war was followed by the long economic crisis that hit Germany particularly hard in 1923 and should end in the complete breakdown of the currency. Protectionism was preferred over free trade and the economies recovered only very slowly. This was also a mortgage of war, the Weimar Republic was given from the beginning.

The war had left deep scars, but also socially. In the trenches was the old company died with their authority, had made space for new, egalitarian models. The much-vaunted "companionship" had particularly among the voluntary "shock troops" wide made that had taken the fight boundless confidence in their "leader" - an idea that brought them back into civilian life now. Voluntary associations of combatants - "Free Corps" - fought with obedience to their respective leaders, the revolutions in Russia and at home and then sought to over throw the old society and to transfer its model to the whole society. The shock troops and the Freikorps were the core of the powerful Movement that Hitler would later unite in his person. But that's another story.

References:
Niall Ferguson - The wrong war
Janusz Piekalkiewiz - The First World War
Sonke Netzel - world war and revolution
Gerhard Hirschfeld - Encyclopedia of World War
HP Wilcott - The First World War
John Keegan - The First World War. A European tragedy

Photo credits:

soldiers in 1914 - not available (public domain)

mobilization - not available (public domain

Russian soldiers 1 - George H. Mewes (public domain)

Russian Soldier 2 - not available (public domain)

supply - not available (CC -BY-SA 3.0)

traumatized soldier - not available (CC-BY-SA 3.0)

Fasteners - American Colony Jerusalem (public domain)

sea fleet - not available in the public domain ()
Italians - not available (public domain)
Lenin - not available (public domain)
Riga - not available (public domain)
shock troops - not available (public domain)
Sopwith - USAF (public domain)
banknotes - Unknown (CC-BY-SA 3.0)