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The Vietnam War, Part 1 / 2

By Stefan Sasse

Indochina in 1992

From 1946 to 1975 in Indochina a war, was the most geopolitically insignificant spots earth should in the main theater of the hot wars in the East-West conflict and transform disavouiren two superpowers difficult. The small country of Vietnam, which had around 1945 almost 30 million inhabitants and had no natural resources, defined in its struggle against the French and the Americans are doing the guerrilla struggle in a way that it had previously only the Spaniards in their defensive battles against Napoleon can. For the U.S., Vietnam became the national trauma of the 20th Century, against which they fight like a shadow always perilous today. Vietnam itself is still a deep-struck country, the losses and destruction this war era has never completely overcome. The image of the Vietnam War has been characterized in the West much of Hollywood, where, on the processing of the trauma, the clearest perceptible traces left behind. However, a detailed knowledge of what exactly happened in Vietnam and actually like a small nation of rice farmers two of the biggest superpowers could beat her time is scarce. An attempt to change to be made here.

In the early 1940s, Indochina was already about 70 years under French colonial rule. Although the Grande Nation had been repeatedly faced with insurrections of the natives who did not accept colonial rule, a real momentum could never develop this. Colonial rule and resistance to it were it not for Vietnam New, but a constant of about 2000 years of history: the giant northern neighbor, China had practiced repeatedly pressure or direct rule, and the history of Vietnam is full of war with China - it is perhaps telling that the Chinese never succeeded the little Vietnam to completely take control.

Vo Nguyen Diaper (l), Ho Chi Minh (r)

changed the situation in Indochina but 1940/41 rapidly. The collapse of France under the onslaught of the Wehrmacht sent shock waves through South East Asia. The allied with Germany, Japan invaded the colony was abandoned by Vichy France without a fight. Most French colonial officials exercised their function during the war, however, continue, albeit under Japanese command. Their propaganda about the "great Asian Prosperity Sphere" was in Vietnam because of the obvious breaches with the reality hardly fertile soil, worse than the French, the Japanese exploited previously in the country with an iron hand. 1944/45 the colony was run down so much and plundered that a massive famine attacked furiously around, the middle of 1945 had fallen to one million victims (ten million people living in affected areas). This famine of the previously small Communist faction in Vietnam, the Viet Minh brought (led by Ho Chi Minh and Vo Ngyuen DIAP), her first big success, they called for refusal to pay taxes and looting of food stocks and were then subsequently very popular.

conducted in close cooperation with American OSS agent, the Viet Minh guerrilla war against the Japanese and declared on 2 September 1945, the day the Japanese surrender, its independence, which was believed to have earned legally. The Vietminh were leaning in their declaration of independence dicht an die USA an, die sie al Vorbild betrachteten und von denen sie sich Hilfe für ihre Sache erhofften: "All men are created equal. They are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness" This immortal statement was made in the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America m 1776. In a broader sense, this means: All the peoples on the earth are equal from birth, all the peoples have a right to live, to be happy and free. The Declaration of the French Revolution made in 1791 on the Rights of Man and the Citizen also states: "All men are born free and with equal rights, and must always remain free and have equal rights." Those are undeniable truths. " The victors of the Second World War, but agreed to Indochina back to France to return. The Vietnminh felt betrayed, probably rightly, by the United States. As the French in 1945 were too weak even to its former colony itself again to take possession of the occupied National Chinese and British, the country together until the French in 1946 invaded the Viet Minh tried to negotiate with the French, especially after their overwhelming electoral victory in early 1946 that seemed to give them any legitimacy -. Paris was but not willing to compromise.

French paratroopers in combat, 1952

So were the signs of war. While the French occupied the country (which it mainly uses the Foreign Legion) and bring it under control hoped that the Vietminh began a guerrilla war. (Were the cities of the French and the Americans later checked much lighter) thanks to the sympathy that they held in especially the ordinary people in the country, they could strike quickly and disappear without the French would have been in a position of permanently to get hold of. The strength of the Viet Minh took over the years and growing Parts of the country came under their control and slipped away from the French colonial power. After the Communist victory in China, they began to supply the Viet Minh in a high level training and supplies. From 1950, the Vietminh were transformed into a regular army, the French could offer more and more stand up. For France, the war became more and more into a costly affairs, the running costs of the already could be applied in an economic crisis staked land barely.

In France, it was in this situation, fortunate that the Korean War broke out . The Americans were thus also involved in Southeast Asia, fought also against the communist-rated foe and were thereby convinced that the domino theory had to be right (the domino theory was that if a country would be communist, his neighbors like dominoes also "fall" and communist would). The case of Vietnam to the Viet Minh was so out of the question. The Americans established the Military Assistance Advisory Group and MAAG, should support France. Military advisers were sent to a Vietnamese "Against Army" to form, weapons supplied and subsidized especially the cost of the war the French. 1954 paid the MAAG, 80% of the French war costs. The American navy also crossed in the Gulf of Tonkin, while the U.S. Air Force flew reconnaissance missions for the French. Despite this massive support, the French lost, however, more and more ground.

Dien Bien Phu (central four green hills)

Since they the Vietnamese guerrilla warfare the long term only had little to counter - but could not achieve lasting success Vietming to, but that was in their own country also do not have to - and replenishment heranzuschaffen was more difficult, while the morale sank, he decided the French Headquarters 1954 gamble : as the Vietminh based ultimately on poorly equipped guerrillas and no planes, no tanks, no artillery, and only a few trucks to even fewer roads had conquered French paratroopers in a coup the fortified Fort Dien Bien Phu in northwest Vietnam, far away from the traditional routes and hiding the Viet Minh. Dien Bien Phu was mounted between some hills where the French burying itself quickly. The plan was to supply the fortress from the air and the attacking Viet Minh, which has the possibility of any heavy equipment was missing through the difficult environment to bring to teach heavy losses and so the Decision to enforce - a modern version of the Battle of Verdun, in a sense. But, the plan failed. The underestimation of the Vietnamese cultural arrogance of the French was soon to be devastating: the southern hill, Isabelle, was isolated significantly and untenable, and the Vietminh were approached to bring to closure of the siege, despite massive French-American air attacks in painstakingly heavy artillery, mostly only by the aid of bicycles. This possibility had rejected the French plan completely, and soon, five Vietnamese divisions - the 308th, 312, 351, 316 and 304 - The hills of Dien stock up Bien Phu from their positions with artillery fire targeted and slowly over the course of several weeks of battle closer and closer. In response to the air strikes, the Vietminh had also changed their tactics and are buried. Bit by bit they dug at the French positions, they blew up, digging new trenches and comes so slowly meter by meter. On 7 May 1954 received the French, the last radio message from Dien Bien Phu: "The enemies have invaded us and we all blow up in the air Vive la France.."

By 26 April were in Geneva met representatives of many countries on a solution on the future of law to see Korea and a possible peace settlement in Indochina. The first time the Indo-China conference was overshadowed by the fighting at Dien Bien Phu from which would emerge both sides win. Vo Ngyuen Diaper, the commanding general of the Viet Minh, and their political leader Ho Chi Minh worked masterfully. The massive attacks in the first week of May forced the Vietminh victory over the French and the international recognition of the Viet Minh as a power that could not be simply ignored. In Geneva, the Vietnam's independence was officially recognized, France and new Socialist Republic of Vietnam signed a cease-fire agreement. The land was along for provisional 17th Parallel in two halves, the north ruled by the Vietminh in the south, the French governor. 1956, general elections take place in Vietnam, and so overall the country are finally agreed. The intervening period should allow for the controlled withdrawal of the French, the transfer of government power and the possible departure of opponents of the Viet Minh - the French were here a good character to their friends, which should leave the Americans in their hasty flight 1975 and.

Ngo Dinh Diem (r), Dwight D. Eisenhower (l) in Washington, 1957

The ink on the Geneva Convention was not yet dry when the United States - which had not signed the agreement to be bound by its provisions - a huge propaganda campaign among the Catholics of the North did. The left by the French emperor in Saigon, Bao Dai, had nominated the Catholic Ngo Dinh Diem as his prime minister, and South Vietnam was sold to the Catholics just as safe port of refuge, while was threatened in the north of the Day of Judgement for all believers. Over a million people fled, assisted by the 7th U.S. fleet and $ 93,000,000 refugee money, within a very short time on the 17th Latitude. To the Exodus to stop was Ho Chi Minh little choice but to close the border - a clear violation of the Geneva Convention. That the favorite project of all communist governments, a general land reform, in the north with the elimination of thousands of "class enemies" ended and the government in 1956 to the admission of "excesses" by force, this situation has hardly improved. 1955 Diem announced, not to feel bound by the Geneva Convention and the elections hold to 1956 do not want. The argument that 80% of the population to the Vietminh, and would not vote for Emperor Bao Dai, convinced the Americans of that line. From this point

were caught with the U.S. mitgehangen. The domino theory building on the foreign policy, demanded the unconditional protection of South Vietnam against communist activities similar to South Korea. This one worked, just as in South Korea, together with a ruthless dictator. Knowing the Diem was backed by Washington for even equal to it to eliminate his political opponents in a number of strokes by using military and secret police. As news of the atrocities broke out, they simply pushed Diem the Communists in their shoes. In return, called the North in 1956, remaining cadres in South Vietnam who were not in anticipation of the elections in 1954 moved to the north, on to "low-level insurgency." Ho Chi Minh took diese Strategie so zusammen: "Do not engage in military operations; that will lead to defeat. Do not take land from a peasant. Emphasize nationalism rather than communism. Do not antagonize anyone if you can avoid it. Be selective in your violence. If an assassination is necessary, use a knife, not a rifle or grenade. It is too easy to kill innocent bystanders with guns and bombs, and accidental killing of the innocent bystanders will alienate peasants from the revolution. Once an assassination has taken place, make sure peasants know why the killing occurred." Diese Strategie wurde "bewaffnete Propaganda" genannt. In der Anfangszeit der Bewegung richteten sich diese Morde hauptsächlich gegen Regierungsangestellte, aber bald wurden auch andere Repräsentanten of the unloved status quo murdered - teachers, agricultural and health officials. To gain control of the south of the rural villages, attacked the rebels - the Viet Cong - in particular the village chief, the right of appointed from Saigon, and in most cases were corrupt. 1958 were already 20% of the village chief dead

North Vietnamese on the Ho Chi Minh Trail

1959 launched the north, the next stage of this strategy, the "armed struggle ". The Vietcong were supplied with weapons, supplies and more men. Since the fine line on 17 Latitude good defended, was leaked that a replenishment of the so-called "Ho Chi Minh Trail" to South Vietnam. This path ran from North Vietnam on the territory of Laos and Cambodia. For long stretches he was in the jungle to discover at all from the air. The North Vietnamese moved their supplies on their backs or on donkeys and bicycles on the several hundred kilometer route. The rebels in the south have been more quickly. - It is necessary to take this opportunity to clarify the terms a little. The Vietnam War films often give the impression that the Viet Cong just all fighters against South Vietnam and the United States. But this is false, but rather it was a mainly from existing South Vietnamese Liberation Army and the guerrillas, which hoped to achieve the liberation of the South on its own. While were also members of the North Vietnamese People's Army in her, but then as they did the Vietcong, not as members of the same. In the following, therefore, the term "Viet Cong" for the guerrillas are in the south, called the term "people's army," the regular forces of North Vietnam.


in office since 1961, President Kennedy suffered only the first year in three crises (Bay of Pigs fiasco, the construction of the Berlin Wall, Cambodia compromise) and thought he could afford no more. Exuberantly proclaimed Vice President Johnson Diem as "Winston Churchill's Asia" (he later explained that he had said it because Diem "the only one is that we have there") and tied it to all public, the United States to the fate of the corrupt and inefficient South Vietnamese government. The U.S. has lost so dramatically along with Diem its reputation. Kennedy and his administration were, however, feel that the conflict without U.S. ground troops had to be resolved, unpredictable and potentially harmful interactions, their use would have. So we moved out, hundreds of military advisers to South Vietnam to send and thus enable the South Vietnamese Army (ARVN) in the situation, the Vietcong to fight independently. This strategy was a colossal failure. The ARVN was fighting to 1975, never able to seriously an opponent. Poorly equipped, poorly executed and completely unmotivated they could neither VC nor the People's Army are more dangerous. To wrest the guerrillas in control of the villages again, drew the Americans from so 1961 hamlet strategy , the larger villages to military villages rebuilt, in which all individuals had to move in the area and the night curfews, had a sort of Asian version of the European castles. With this strategy, but the locals were separated from their traditional places and so shaken, the spiritual life of Vietnamese people but is based largely on family spirit and was therefore bound location. The population has been driven only even more so in the hands of the Vietcong.

The dead Ngo Dinh Diem, 2 November 1963

1963, the failure of the Diem regime had become definitively clear than that the U.S. would have even longer can tolerate. The Buddhist population was suppressed in favor of Catholicism, scandals rocked the government, large parts of the country had slipped from their control. The CIA was in contact with several South Vietnamese generals who were planning a coup and promised in return to war to finally end victorious. The Americans were aware that they are not standing in the way and they would accept it. decided after a further failed offensive, the military opposition to action, overthrew and killed Diem and his brother. The bloody coup provoked revulsion and horror, and further destroyed the credibility of the Americans, who congratulated the generals and their support soon intensified. The alternate in rapid succession in South Vietnam suffered military cabinets, besides its incompetence, which they shared with Diem, in addition to the Stigma of being puppets of the United States - a charge that even the toughest opponent the die-hard nationalists Diem had to make.

The conflict dragged on Sun The ARVN was unable to halt the activities stop, and the Americans are not further dealt with the issue. Lyndon B. Johnson after Kennedy's assassination President, saw its attention mainly on its domestic reform and development of the American welfare state ("Great Society"). Vietnam was for him a completely uninteresting border conflict. That changed dramatically when, on 2 and 4 August 1964, the U.S. destroyers Maddox and Turner Joy in the Gulf of Tonkin by North Vietnamese attacks Torpedo boats reported. We now know that these attacks have never happened, but then gave it as a pretext to bring in the Gulf of Tonkin resolution in Congress that represents a crucial turning point in U.S. political system. It is worthwhile therefore to stay briefly with her.

The resolution

official order to explain the state of war needs, the president of the majority in both houses of Congress. If he does not go that step - for example, because a war would be not to sell domestically - it can, of course, certain of the rights for the use of regular Troops are necessary to allow temporarily transferred by the Congress. This is done usually in a resolution that delimits these circumstances. The Gulf-of-Tonkin Resolution, however, was so general that the president was, in principle, unrestricted freedom of action in Southeast Asia. Army, Navy and Air Force he were available. Not even the time frame had been placed too much. The entire war up to 1975 was followed only on the basis of this resolution, as well as the subsequent expansion of the fighting in Laos and Cambodia. Never again after this resolution, Congress would issue such a permissive a blank check for a president and give up his control rights although the Iraq war in 2003 has clear parallels to it.

To assist South Vietnam immediately and provide a response to the alleged attack North Vietnam launched the U.S. Air Force in several stages a massive bombing campaign against North Vietnam. Within the next three years should be in "Rolling Thunder" will be dropped over a million tons of bombs - and the number of the Second World War, much of Germany dropped bombs exceed. The Chief of Staff Curtis LeMay announced his intention to North Vietnam "back bombs in the stone age" to do what has since become a catchphrase. The aim of the operation was to prevent the resupply of the Vietcong, to undermine the morale of the North and to support the South. None of these goals was achieved. One of the officers then saw the advance already and noted: . "This is a political war and it calls for discriminate killing The best weapon ... would be a knife ... The worst is an airplane." He had certainly right.

Marines with prisoners, 1968

As so often happens in such cases, the events developed its own dynamic. The expansion of the U.S. air war increased the importance of the bases in South Vietnam, clearly, and no one trusted the ARVN seriously, they protect to. If one were to perform the actual air strategy in the planned extent, a backup of the bases could not be avoided. It was therefore decided - in overwhelming support of the American population - a first group of 3,500 Marines to send to South Vietnam to protect the American bases there. Even as this defense troops arrived two things were clear. Firstly, the ARVN troops were unable to survive in their own operations, they lost several key battles in the course of the year and stood at the edge of collapse in 1966. On the other hand, the American troops and their commanders for the offensive warfare trained and equipped, was not defending them. In December 1965, 200,000 American soldiers stationed in Vietnam. The first major ground offensive and therefore the conclusion of the "Americanization" of the war was only a matter of time.

Get out in Part 2 .

References:
Peter Scholl-Latour - death in the rice field
Rolf Steiniger - Vietnam War
Bernd Greiner - war without fronts. The U.S. in Vietnam
Marc Frey - History of the Vietnam War
Denise Chong - The girl behind the photo: The story of Kim Phuc
Jonathan Neale - The American War - Vietnam 1960 - 1975
Edith cleaning Cz - The Vietnam War 1965 - 1975

Credit:

card - NgaViet (public domain)

Giap, Minh - The Deer (public domain)

paratrooper - Warner Pathé News (public domain)
Dien Bien Phu - Raul 654 (CC-BY-SA 3.0)
Diem, Eisenhower - Department of Defense, Department of the Air Force (Public Domain)
path - Joel D. Meyerson (public domain)
Diem dead - not available (public domain)
Resolution - States United States States Congress (Public Domain)
Marines - U.S. Air Force (Public Domain)